Teaching Art History with Treefrog Treasures (1 Viewer)

[PolarBear]

Randy,

I actually prefer the square bases because they will fit in with my Trophy figures.

Good point Brad

 

[PolarBear]

Part 15A Homer's 1860 Trilogy of Freedom: Giuseppe Garibaldi

I now wish to examine the second example of Homer's 1860 Trilogy of Freedom. We have previously looked at his portrait of the newly elected President Abraham Lincoln that was published in the November 10, 1860 issue of Harper's Weekly. One week later On November 17, Harper's published his portrait of Italian patriot and revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi. As with Lincoln, Homer's engraving appeared on the cover of the Weekly.
The title of the illustration is General Giuseppe Garibaldi and Two Favorite Volunteers. Harper's misspelled Garibaldi's first name reversing the i and the u.

The engraving is a celebration of Garibaldi and his followers success in liberating the two Sicilies from the control of the Bourbon monarch Ferdinand II who was nicknamed Bomba or the "bomber" for his notorious shelling and slaughter of the inhabitants of Messina during the 1848 revolutions and the resulting political unrest.

Homer shows Garibaldi within an oval frame surrounded flags and a monumental masonry structure, symbolizing his victory supporting his ultimate goal of Italian unification. To the left and right of his portrait are two of the “1000” who made up the volunteer army that brought freedom to this part of Italy. The portrayal of Garibaldi is based upon an oil painting of the leader painted in 1860 by the Milanese Risorgimento artist Eleuterio Pagliano (1826-1903) whose career extended beyond art to include activism and fighting for the Risorgimento, in quest of the ultimate goal of the unification of the separate states of Italy. A supporter of Garibaldi, he supplemented his painting career by serving as a Bersaglieri soldier in 1848 and later fought in Lombardy in 1859.

Homer did not see the original oil painting but was sent a black and white photograph that was sufficient for the black and white engraving which successfully captured the essence of Pagliano's portrait of the Italian hero. Homer also relied upon another photograph to recreate the Volunteers who flank the portrait of their leader. The figure on the right is based upon that photograph of Ignazio Occhipinti, a Sicilian eager to free his homeland. Homer scholar David Tatham has suggested the portrayal of the volunteer on the left is also based on the Occhipinti photograph but with modifications to individualize the subject.

A brief article accompanied Homer's Garibaldi illustration in Harper's Weekly. It began by saying "We present our readers with the latest and most authentic Portrait in existence of General Garibaldi, the Washington of
Italy. The original was painted from life by Pagliano, one of the first [rank of] artists in Milan during the Spring of the present year, for Lorenzo Valerio, the Governor of Como, and at present Commissioner Extraordinary of King Victor Emmanuel for the Marches, an intimate friend and distinguished co-worker with Garibaldi in the cause of Italian Freedom and equity."

Pagliano painted a later portrait of Garibaldi in 1866 which is reproduced below.

In the next posts I will examine: Homer's print in the context of other 1860 Harper's Weekly illustrations of Garibaldi and then, Garibaldi's connection to New York City in the early 1850s where he lived in exile after the unsuccessful 1848 revolution in Italy and again during the Civil
War when the Garibaldi Guard was formed in the city.

Illustrations:

1.Portrait of Garibaldi by Winslow Homer for Harper's Weekly November17, 1860
2.1860 Portrait of Garibaldi by Pagliano (oil painting)
3.Photograph of Garibaldi Volunteer Ignazio Occhipinti
4.1866 Portrait of Garibaldi by Pagliano (oil painting)

 

[cantinetozzo]

Great post (and thread) , just a little note, Garibaldi conquered the Kingdom of Two Sicilies against King Francesco II , not King Bomba.At the time King Ferdinando was already dead. Francesco was the shadow of his father and was named Franceschiello (little Francesco) because his teaching was not (as usual in that time) aimed for a statesman and fighting monarch but more for a peace lover and religious man. Thanks for this beautiful post!

Part 15A Homer's 1860 Trilogy of Freedom: Giuseppe Garibaldi

I now wish to examine the second example of Homer's 1860 Trilogy of Freedom. We have previously looked at his portrait of the newly elected President Abraham Lincoln that was published in the November 10, 1860 issue of Harper's Weekly. One week later On November 17, Harper's published his portrait of Italian patriot and revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi. As with Lincoln, Homer's engraving appeared on the cover of the Weekly.
The title of the illustration is General Giuseppe Garibaldi and Two Favorite Volunteers. Harper's misspelled Garibaldi's first name reversing the i and the u.

The engraving is a celebration of Garibaldi and his followers success in liberating the two Sicilies from the control of the Bourbon monarch Ferdinand II who was nicknamed Bomba or the "bomber" for his notorious shelling and slaughter of the inhabitants of Messina during the 1848 revolutions and the resulting political unrest.

Homer shows Garibaldi within an oval frame surrounded flags and a monumental masonry structure, symbolizing his victory supporting his ultimate goal of Italian unification. To the left and right of his portrait are two of the “1000” who made up the volunteer army that brought freedom to this part of Italy. The portrayal of Garibaldi is based upon an oil painting of the leader painted in 1860 by the Milanese Risorgimento artist Eleuterio Pagliano (1826-1903) whose career extended beyond art to include activism and fighting for the Risorgimento, in quest of the ultimate goal of the unification of the separate states of Italy. A supporter of Garibaldi, he supplemented his painting career by serving as a Bersaglieri soldier in 1848 and later fought in Lombardy in 1859.

Homer did not see the original oil painting but was sent a black and white photograph that was sufficient for the black and white engraving which successfully captured the essence of Pagliano's portrait of the Italian hero. Homer also relied upon another photograph to recreate the Volunteers who flank the portrait of their leader. The figure on the right is based upon that photograph of Ignazio Occhipinti, a Sicilian eager to free his homeland. Homer scholar David Tatham has suggested the portrayal of the volunteer on the left is also based on the Occhipinti photograph but with modifications to individualize the subject.

A brief article accompanied Homer's Garibaldi illustration in Harper's Weekly. It began by saying "We present our readers with the latest and most authentic Portrait in existence of General Garibaldi, the Washington of
Italy. The original was painted from life by Pagliano, one of the first [rank of] artists in Milan during the Spring of the present year, for Lorenzo Valerio, the Governor of Como, and at present Commissioner Extraordinary of King Victor Emmanuel for the Marches, an intimate friend and distinguished co-worker with Garibaldi in the cause of Italian Freedom and equity."

Pagliano painted a later portrait of Garibaldi in 1866 which is reproduced below.

In the next posts I will examine: Homer's print in the context of other 1860 Harper's Weekly illustrations of Garibaldi and then, Garibaldi's connection to New York City in the early 1850s where he lived in exile after the unsuccessful 1848 revolution in Italy and again during the Civil
War when the Garibaldi Guard was formed in the city.

Illustrations:

1.Portrait of Garibaldi by Winslow Homer for Harper's Weekly November17, 1860
2.1860 Portrait of Garibaldi by Pagliano (oil painting)
3.Photograph of Garibaldi Volunteer Ignazio Occhipinti
4.1866 Portrait of Garibaldi by Pagliano (oil painting)

 

[PolarBear]

Great post (and thread) , just a little note, Garibaldi conquered the Kingdom of Two Sicilies against King Francesco II , not King Bomba.At the time King Ferdinando was already dead. Francesco was the shadow of his father and was named Franceschiello (little Francesco) because his teaching was not (as usual in that time) aimed for a statesman and fighting monarch but more for a peace lover and religious man. Thanks for this beautiful post!

Thank you for your comments and glad you are enjoying the posts. Thank you also for the clarification on Bomba/Ferdinand and Francesco. Its is odd that the Harper's Weekly artist used the dead King for the 1860 cartoon on Garibaldi as Perseus. (see next post))My guess it was for his crimes of bombing civilians. Here is a link to the text from the Harper's Weekly website

http://www.harpweek.com/09Cartoon/BrowseByDateCartoon.asp?Month=July&Date=7

Randy

 

[PolarBear]

Part 15B Homer's 1860 Trilogy of Freedom: Giuseppe Garibaldi continued--The 1860 Context of Homer's Print

Between June and November 1860 Harper's Weekly published at least six illustrations depicting Garibaldi. Homer was only responsible for the example in the November 17th issue. The Weekly began publishing in 1857 and by 1860 had a circulation of 200,000. Since the issues got passed around, the actual readership was much larger. The popularity of the publication was enhanced by its wood engraved illustrations, the predecessor to photographs which were first attempted in 1873 but did not become widespread until the 1880s. Harper's illustrators included not only Homer but other artists who had distinguished careers in pictorial journalism such as the English Civil War artist Alfred Waud and German-born political cartoonist Thomas Nast.

The five illustrations that were published prior to Homer's November portrait of Garibaldi were as follows: (note HW stands for Harper's Weekly in the illustration labels below).

1.General Giuseppe Garibaldi HW June 9,1860. This depicts the General leading his troops in battle after they had arrived in the Two Sicilies. The scene likely portrays the march through the Kingdom of Naples which had endured centuries of oppression under a variety of foreign rulers including France and Spain. Americans eagerly followed Garibaldi's progress as detailed by the American press. Many Americans sent money and aid to the "Italian Washington" and some even left America to fight along side their hero. Americans who recalled its own nation's overthrow of the British monarchy were ready to support a nation that had been living beneath the thumb of a dynastic monarchy. The importance of the event was reinforced by the placement of the illustration on the front cover of the issue of the Weekly.

2.Departure of Garibaldi and his followers from Genoa on May 5,1860 HW June 30, 1860 This subject is historically out of sequence and thus retrospective since by the date of publication Garibaldi and his forces were already in Sicily and on their way towards Palermo which they would capture on June 6, as seen in the print from June 9th.

3.Garibaldi the Liberator or The Modern Perseus HW July 30, 1860
This is an allegorical print that originally appeared in the British magazine Punch, June 16, 1860. This illustration is a modern retelling of the Greek myth of the hero Perseus rescuing the Ethiopian maiden Andromeda from a sea monster Cetus who has chained her to a rock. In the cartoon the sea monster represents King Ferdinand who is holding Andromeda captive. Andromeda symbolizes Sicily as indicated by the writing on her belt. We know the sea monster is Ferdinand since his nickname Bomba is written on his belt. Garibaldi's shield bears the text Garibaldi To the Rescue leaving no doubt about the true identity of Perseus.

4.The Triumphal Entry of Garibaldi into Naples HW October 20, 1860
This event which occurred on September 7, 1860 was a key moment towards the unification of Italy. The king, Francis II fled the city ending the monarchy there. Garibaldi is shown sitting in an open carriage tipping his hat to the adoring crowd. This is another illustration that added
to the heroic aura that became part of the global Garibaldi legend.

5.The Saint and the Hero: Garibaldi Driving St. Januarius and the Winking Picture Out of Naples HW October 20, 1860. This political cartoon appeared on the same page as the the previous illustration. The cartoon reflects an American point of view that felt the Italian revolutions seeking national unification had a religious element. There is definitely an anti-Catholic sentiment expressed here. Thus we see Garibaldi expelling a monk from Naples. The monk is shown carrying relics of St. Januarius, the patron saint of Naples. The bottle of the blood of the saint represents a miracle associated with the him: the liquefaction of his coagulated blood that occurs up to 18 times per year since for over 600 years. During the September 2016 visit of Pope Francis to Naples just such a phenomenon occurred as seen in the included photo. The monk is also seen carrying a mechanical device called the "Winking Picture" that was used to suggest another form of miracle.

Historian Paola Gemme has provided this explanation of the cartoon:

".....the freedom restored by Garibaldi to the population of the south (of Italy) is seen first and foremost as a liberation from the tricks of the priesthood, those 'holy knaves' and 'false jugglers' to whom an anonymous poem accompanying the sketch ascribes full responsibility for Italy's condition of 'slavery' prior to the revolutions." Garibaldi saw the pope and control by the papacy in Rome as roadblocks to freedom and unification of the Italian people.

 

[PolarBear]

Part 15C Homer's 1860 Trilogy of Freedom: Giuseppe Garibaldi continued—Harper’s Weekly 1862-1882

In my previous post, I showed the other Garibaldi subjects published by Harper’s Weekly during 1860 as a context for Homer’s effort of November 17, 1860. American interest in Garibaldi continued until his death in 1882. Between 1862 and 1882, Harper’s published 4 more Garibaldi subjects by other artists. Each of the subjects represented a new event in Garibaldi’s life.


1.Garibaldi, Wounded and a Prisoner HW October 23,1862

In 1862 Garibaldi tried to liberate Rome without success. In the process, he was wounded in the hip and right ankle in a 10 minute clash at Aspromonte with Bersaglieri of the Royal Italian Army. He was taken as a prisoner to Varignano where he was nursed back to health. On October 5, 1862 Garibaldi and his men were given amnesty and he returned to his home on the island of Caprera. The Harper’s artist shows him as the wounded prisoner of war with his foot propped up on a stool. By the time the illustration appeared on October 23rd, he was already at his home on Caprera. The artist has given him a contemplative pose suggesting to the viewer that while recovering from his wounds he was already thinking about a new strategy for capturing Rome.

2.Joseph Garibaldi, The Italian Patriot HW October 19, 1867

This issue published 5 years after the October 1862 Weekly repurposed the cover illustration from that issue by cropping it so that there is no evidence of his wounded state after Aspromonte. Now he is meant to be solely contemplating his next move against Rome in order to complete his goal of unification. The accompanying article covers the history of that goal. In August of 1866 only Rome and its surrounding area were missing from finally unifying the nation. His target was the papacy which he described in September of 1867 as “the negation of God…shame and plague of Italy”. Garibaldi then proceeded to raise another army, this time assembling 10,000 volunteers. He invaded the area just outside Rome in October of 1867 but was beaten back by Papal Zouaves supplied by Napoleon III of France. At the time this issue of Harper’s was published, the situation was still fluid. Eventually at the Battle of Mentana on November 3,1867 Garibaldi and his volunteers were once again defeated by the French Zouaves. He had lost 1000 men in the battle and another 1000 were taken prisoner. Garibaldi eventually retreated with 5000 of his men to the Kingdom of Italy. It should be noted in the title of the illustration Garibaldi’s first name has been Americanized to Joseph perhaps as a reminder to readers that the Italian patriot and revolutionary had resided in New York in the early 1850s, living and working on Staten Island.


3.UNITED ITALY: Like Phoenix Will Rise From Its Ashes to Immortality HW September 9, 1871 by Thomas Nast

Rome was finally taken by the Italian Army on September 20,1870. This victory was aided by the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War which required that French troops be withdrawn from Rome and return to France to participate in the fight against the Prussian Army. This Harper’s Weekly commemorates that achievement almost a year later showing the Roma, the goddess of Rome finally unifying the territories of Italy. Portraits of Garibaldi and King Victor Emanuel flank the emblems of the Kingdom of Italy.

4.Giuseppe Garibaldi: Died At Caprera June 2 HW June 17, 1882 by Thomas Nast

This is a tribute page drawn by Thomas Nast 15 days after Garibaldi died at his home on the island of Caprera at the age of 75. Nast’s illustrations focus on the victorious General of 1860.

 

[PolarBear]

Part 16 Homer's 1860 Trilogy of Freedom: Frederick Douglass

Of the three Homer prints comprising what I have described as his Trilogy of Freedom, I view the Douglass print as the most significant. We will see how the subject brings together three historic individuals with an agenda of freedom and an antipathy towards slavery. Although only one of them appears in Homer's print: black Abolitionist Frederick Douglass, the other two are named in the speech that Douglass had prepared for a meeting of black and white activists, abolitionists, and Harper's Ferry conspirators on December 3, 1860 at the Tremont Temple in Boston. The purpose of the meeting was a memorial for John Brown who had been executed on December 2, 1859 for leading the the Raid on Harper's Ferry with a combined force of black and white supporters. Brown's motivation was to lay the foundation for a larger black insurrection to overthrow slavery in America as had happened in Haiti (1791-1803). This was a dangerous topic by this time even in the North. There were fears among whites of an aggressive black militancy and revolution reminiscent of the slave rebellions of Nat Turner and Denmark Vesey that had occurred earlier in the century.

In the December 15, 1860 issue of Harper's Weekly the new Homer illustration appeared entitled Expulsion of Negroes and Abolitionists from Tremont Temple, on December 3, 1860. This work like his earlier The Arguments of the Chivalry (1856) was a portrayal of the violence that surrounded the abolitionist movement. That violence is reflected in the print that Homer did of the event.

Word about the meeting and its purpose had spread quickly throughout Boston. Therefore a number of anti-abolitionists showed up at the meeting. These were made up of two groups: Boston businessmen and street toughs looking for a fight with the blacks. The businessmen were Unionists and did not want a civil war that would break up the Union. These were the Northerners who looked the other way when it came to the Southern plantation system and its slave labor. Many of them were part of what Harvard historian Sven Beckert has described as the "Empire of Cotton". They were the capitalists, merchants and entrepreneurs of the industrial aspects of cotton who got rich on the work of the South's slave labor. They did not want their profitable cotton textile trade disrupted by a war.

The businessmen took seats in the front row just below the stage and other opponents of the meeting seated themselves throughout the room. The events that transpired were recorded by articles in the abolitionist publications of Douglass and Massachusetts abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison:

Douglass Monthly January 1861
"The Boston Mob of December 1860"
"Free Speech Outraged in Boston"

Liberator Dec 16, 1860 (Garrison's publication)
"The Church a Refuge"

As soon as the abolitionists began the meeting they were interrupted by shouts from the audience of businessmen and street ruffians whose goal was to bring the meeting to an end.

The white Unionists shouted racist epithets:

"Sweep it (Tremont Temple) clear of the Negroes"

"put all the niggers out! All out! Blow them up."

Chairs were hurled at the stage, walking sticks became weapons and a brawl broke out among the men while women were dragged from their seats by police sent to the Temple by the city's mayor. Douglass himself got involved in the fray. It was said he fought like a pugilist. The crowd threatened to lynch him and ultimately he was thrown down a flight of stairs by police and forced to evacuate the building.

Douglass, however, refused to give in to the anti-slavery crowd that broke up his Brown memorial meeting. He arranged to move the meeting that night to the African Meeting House on Joy Street where he and others including John Brown, Jr. were able to proceed with the original meeting and speeches. The theme of the meeting was reflected in the official invitations sent out to the public:

Purpose of the Meeting:

"To consider The Great Question of the Age: How Can American Slavery Be Abolished."

The rescheduled meeting was well attended by both men and women, black and white. The tenor of the gathering was a militant one. Douglass spoke of the need for an insurrection. He also said: "The only way to make the Fugitive Slave Law a dead letter is to make a few dead slave-catchers."

In his comments on John Brown's fight against slavery, Douglass related Brown to Garibaldi who had been fighting for Italian freedom and unification in 1860. The black abolitionist compared Brown's 1859 Harper's Ferry Raid to Garibaldi's invasion of Sicily. Both charismatic leaders had made use of armed volunteers in their pursuit of freedom. Douglass used these examples as support for armed revolts against the owners of slaves. The connection he made between Brown and Garibaldi was meant to justify the use of violence. News coverage of Garibaldi's efforts in Italy received good coverage in the American press which we have seen in examples from 1860 issues of Harper's Weekly. All this media attention had enhanced Garibaldi's popularity in America building upon the Italian patriot's residence in New York in the early 1850s.

Douglass told the assembled crowd that the most efficient way to make Brown's approach to abolishing slavery successful was to have "a Garibaldi...who would march into those [southern] states with a thousand men, and summon to his standard sixty thousand, if necessary, to accomplish the freedom of the slave."

Although there was no violence during the meeting in the Joy Street Church, when the attendees left there was a mob waiting for them. The negroes were attacked and "Some were knocked down and trampled upon and a few more seriously injured." Gunfire was also present and a number of the church windows were broken.

One other part of the story: There was an interesting connection between Garibaldi and John Brown. Among Garibaldi's troops in Italy were a number of English volunteers. Hugh Forbes, one of those men, had published a book in 1855 entitled Manual for the Patriotic Volunteer. This was used by Forbes to provide training for Brown and one of his sons to prepare the volunteers who would participate in the Harper's Ferry raid.

I have included photos of the only toy soldiers I have found that depict Brown and some of his volunteers. The figures were made by Wm. Hocker and are part of his Civil War set 322 Abolitionists. I made a small diorama pictured below using some of those figures.

Note: Homer's print captured the essence of the conflict that was brewing and would lead to a bloody civil war between the North and the South. Homer was in New York at the time so he was not present at the Boston meetings. This likely accounts for his representation of Douglass in the print not resembling the abolitionists appearance in 1860. Compare the photograph in Illustration 4 which shows how Douglass looked in the 1860s.

Illustrations

1.Expulsion of Negroes and Abolitionists from Tremont Temple, Boston, December 3, 1860 by Winslow Homer Harper’s Weekly December 15, 1860
2.Tremont Temple, Boston c.1851
3.African Meeting House, Joy Street, Boston
4.Frederick Douglass, John Brown, Giuseppe Garibaldi
5.Wm. Hocker Abolitionists and diorama by Polarbear

 

[PolarBear]

Coming In January

Dreaming of Arcadia
The American Italian Connection
In
The 19th Century
​

Now that I have looked at aspects of the lives and work of Winslow Homer and Giuseppe Garibaldi I next want to point out some of the connections that existed between the United States and Italy in the Antebellum Era. These connections were not only historical and political, but also cultural. The latter would draw hundreds of American artists and writers to Italy in the mid 19th C. My purpose will be to explain the reasons why Homer chose to use a red woman's Garibaldi Jacket as a symbol of freedom in his 1871 painting The Old Mill. As an artist of his time Homer was definitely aware of his country's interest in Italy, an interest fueled by the Risorgimento in general and the fame of Garibaldi in particular.

Merry Christmas

See You In 2017​

Illustrations:

William Page, American Artist (1811-1885)

Self Portrait 1860-61(Rome)

Mrs. Page 1860-61 (Rome)

 

[Poppo]

I took today this photo of the Garibaldi statue in my town in Italy.

 

[PolarBear]

I took today this photo of the Garibaldi statue in my town in Italy.



View attachment 205770

Thank you Poppo. That is a great photo! Do you know how old it is?

Randy

 

[PolarBear]

Tomorrow I will post the first half of a brief survey of American Artists in Italy in the 18th & 19th Centuries to indicate America's interest in Italy's history, art and civilization. The story of Garibaldi and his deeds were part of that fascination, especially during the Antebellum and Civil War Eras.

Today I am posting a summary/abstract of my key ideas about Homer's 1871 painting of the Old Mill and the woman in the red jacket. I will discuss these in more detail when we get to the concluding posts of the thread. I hope this summary will provide a heads up and clarify my goals for this series.

 

[Poppo]

Thank you Poppo. That is a great photo! Do you know how old it is?

Randy

According to the roman mumbers on the statue, it was made on 1890. All the " patriotic" statues in Italy were made in the late 19th century ( in Italy there are also many statues of Vittorio Emanuele II, first king of Italy; Giuseppe Mazzini, the ideologist of an united Italy).

Garibaldi was a sort of Che Guevara, an idealistic adventurer fighting for great causes. Anyway, I think he is well known for his action in unifying Italy and for his fightings in south America.He is called " the hero of the 2 worlds". Less for his action in the USA.

During the end of WW2, a branch of the italian partisans, the communists( not the socialists, liberals, catholics) called themseves " garibaldini", because they were liberating Italy ( well, the anglo-american army liberated Italy in reality!) and because the Garibaldi soldiers wore red shirts and this let think of the communist flag.

 

[PolarBear]

Part 17A American Artists in Italy: The 18th Century

The purpose of Parts 17A and 17B will be to show American interest in Italy through its art and artists in the 18th and 19th centuries: the centuries prior to and during the Risorgimento and the rise of Giuseppe Garibaldi. Both centuries were instrumental in developing the dialogue of national freedom and liberty that led to what has been described by historian Andre Fleche in his 2012 book as "The Revolution of 1861: The American Civil War in the Age of Nationalist Conflict". Art historian Albert Boime in his book on European and American art between 1848 and 1871 echoed this when he described this as "Art in An Age of Civil Struggle". Art and politics in both Lincoln's America and Garibaldi's Italy are covered by Boime.

American artists first visited Italy during the latter half of the 18th Century. Their presence there was likely the result of an intellectual movement and a new style. The movement was known as the Enlightenment. The style was Neoclassicism.

The Enlightenment was characterized by a heightened interest in intellectual pursuits such as philosophy and history and a new reading of the world based upon Reason. The movement had its center in Paris but spread to other European countries and America.

The creators of the Enlightenment were interested in expanding human knowledge. Intellect and the exchange of ideas were at the center of the movement. Therefore subjects such as science, geography, history, and especially philosophy were developed to a great degree. Among the philosophers and thinkers we associate with the Enlightenment were Rousseau, Diderot, Montesquieu, and Voltaire in France, Locke Newton, Hume, Dr. Johnson, and Adam Smith in Britain, Kant and Hegel in Germany, and Jefferson, Franklin, Madison, and Paine in America.

The thirst for knowledge led to an increased emphasis upon education with an expansion in the role of schools, academies, universities, and learned societies. Among the ways to develop an individual’s knowledge was the so-called Grand Tour of the major European capitals and cities with the purpose of soaking up their history and culture. The primary beneficiaries of these tours were young upperclass gentlemen. The young man shown in illustration 1 below was an Englishman from Cornwall, England named Francis Bassett who eventually pursued a career in politics and served in Parliament. He his shown visiting Rome (note St. Peter’s and the Castel
St. Angelo in the background) in a 1778 portrait by the renowned Roman painter Pompeo Batoni. The adjacent illustration is by the 18th C Italian landscape painter Giovanni Paolo Panini and shows tourists exploring some of the ruins of Roman architecture and sculpture, a typical feature of the Grand Tour of the Eternal city. American artists visiting and studying in Italy would have taken advantage of the same type of educational experience.

Artists visiting the ruins and sites of Italy in the latter half of the 18th Century would have considered these monuments in the context of the latest style of Neoclassicism (New Classicism) which was influenced by the Classical art of the Ancient World and the Renaissance that was now all the rage among European and American artists in the latter half of the 18th C. The style was inspired by 18th C discoveries in archaeology. One individual who was a major influence on and promoter of this new style was the German art historian and archaeologist Johann Wincklemann (1717-1768) who published books and essays on ancient Greek and Roman art that included illustrations as seen in his portrait of 1768 in the first half of Illustration 2. The painting adjacent to Winckleman’s portrait is by Panini and is entitled Ancient Rome done in 1757. It shows artists and collectors studying examples of Roman architecture and art as sources for their own arts of the 18th C.

The first American artist to travel to Rome to paint in the 18th C was Benjamin West of Pennsylvania. He was sponsored by a rich American art collector who wanted West to make copies of Italian painters such as Raphael and Titian to be brought back for his collection. Illustration 3 shows a self-portrait of West done some time in the 1770s. The middle painting in illustration 3 is West’s 1768 Agrippina Landing at Brundisium with the Ashes of Germanicus. The scene is based on Roman history. Agrippina is shown carrying an urn of her husband Germanicus's ashes. Germanicus had been assassinated by his enemy the Emperor Tiberius and she is bringing his remains back to Rome. Her husband had a popular general in the Roman army and a statesman. She was admired for her bravery by returning to Rome and confronting Tiberius. The scene is replete with Ancient Roman buildings and citizens and soldiers. The subject of this painting was taken from Roman history. This example of Neoclassicism offers a sharp contrast to the style that preceded it: the Rococo. This is immediately visible when the painting is compared with the third image in Illustration 3: The Swing (1767) by the French painter Jean-Honoré Fragonard. In contrast to the serious subject and style of the West painting, with its p story of a Roman heroine, we now see a flirtatious young woman teasing her lover watching in the bushes with an eroticism that is in vivid contrast to Agrippina's bravery returning to the place where he husband was killed at the behest of the Emperor. The color scheme of The Swing by use of pinks and blues, a pure confection lacking the serious and thought provoking quality of West's Agrippina. While the West is the epitome of Neoclassic moral uplift, the Fragonard borders on soft core pornography..

West!s interest in the Italian Renaissance paintings of Raphael led to his a painting a portrait of his wife and son that mimics the style of the Italian master. His respect for and homage to the artist is further evident in his naming their son Raphael. See Illustration 4.

If West was the first American artist to travel to Italy and Rome, then John Singleton Copley of Boston was the second. He would later become one of America's most famous artists. It was West who encouraged Copley to come to Europe and especially Rome. Copley had had a successful career as a portrait painter in Boston capturing the likenesses of the men and women who would end up on both sides of the American Revolution. He hungered, however, to see the work of the great European masters which he only knew through black and white engravings and some copies in oil.
Political reasons also hastened his departure in 1774. Copley's father-in-law was an East India merchant in Boston. It was his India tea that was thrown overboard into Boston Harbor on December 16,1773.

Copley traveled first to England, then through France and finally arrived in Italy where he was able to see the treasures of Italian Renaissance art in the galleries of Rome and Florence. Like West before him, he fell in love with the work of Raphael. While in Rome he received a commission for a portrait by a wealthy South Carolinian Ralph Izard and his wife Alice. (see Illustration 5) Izard was a connoisseur of art including Roman antiquities. They had met while touring Roman archaeological sites at Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Paestum. The resulting double portrait of the couple, known in the 18th C as a "conversation" was completed between 1775 and 1776. The painting includes an abundance of items reflective of the couple's interest in antiquity including a view of the Roman Colosseum in the background a favorite symbol used by American artists to geographically place their subject. Classical imagery helped give the painting the "weight of the past" and a sense of the history and civilization of the Western World.

In closing it should be mentioned that the Enlightenment was the era of three major national Atlantic revolutions: America 1776, France 1789, and Haiti 1791-1804. Government, politics, freedom and liberty were all major topics of the movement that established the United States and laid the foundation for the nationalist and revolutionary struggles of the 19th C represented by individuals such Lincoln, Douglass, and Garibaldi the three subjects of Winslow Homer's 1860 Trilogy of Freedom in Harper's Weekly.

Next time I will look at some of the American artists working in Italy during the time of Garibaldi.

Illustrations:

1 Francis Bassett by Batoni(1778) Roman Ruins by Panini.
2. Johann Wincklemann. Ancient Rome by Panini.
3. Benjamin West Self Portrait (1770s). Agrippina Landing at Brundisium with the Ashes of Germanicus (1768) by West. The Swing (1767) by Fragonard.
4. Mrs. West and Son Raphael (1773) by West. The Madonna of the Chair (1514) by Raphael
5. Self Portrait (1784) by John Singleton Copley. Mr.and Mrs. Ralph Izzard (1775-76) by Copley.

 

[PolarBear]

Anyone interested in the American Revolution which was an important part of the 18th C Enlightenment I just discussed in my previous post should check out these 2016 books

A Revolution in Color: The World of John Singleton Copley by Jane Kamensky
[Recommended by REVWARBUFF on the TF Forum as an enjoyable read:salute::]

Of Arms and Artists: The American Revolution through Painters' Eyes by Paul Staiti

 

[PolarBear]

Part 17B1 American Artists & in Italy in the 19th C

Among American visitors to Italy during the first half of the 19th Century were members of the US Navy's Mediterranean Squadron and a Kentucky born artist who would make a painting of their ship and document the famous British poet who would be there to tour the vessel and meet its officers and crew.

On May 14,1822, the American frigate USS Constitution arrived off the coast of Leghorn (Livorno), Italy, below Pisa. The ship would remain there until its departure on May 23rd. The Constitution's presence was part of the expanding role of the US Navy around the globe. Naval authorities in Washington had established squadrons to patrol the oceans from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The purpose of these squadrons was to protect American commerce (including whaling vessels) overseas and additionally play a diplomatic foreign policy role. Therefore naval stations were set up to cover the Mediterranean (1815), the West Indies (1821), Africa (1821), the Pacific (1821), and Brazil (1826). The Constitution was first sent to the Mediterranean in 1803 for the purpose of protecting American ships from raids by the Barbary pirates or Corsairs.

Leghorn, the English name for Livorno, was at the time the residence of one of the most famous of the British Romantic poets, George Gordon Byron, better known as Lord Byron. Exiled from England after a scandalous relationship with his half-sister, he settled in Italy to work on his satirical epic poem Don Juan (1818-1824). By the time the Constitution arrived, Byron had achieved fame not only in Europe but in America. When the Constitution dropped anchor on May 14, Byron was at work on his masterpiece. Commodore Jacob Jones invited Byron aboard his ship on May 22nd.

The American essayist, Henry Tuckerman (1813-1871) wrote about Byron's visit aboard the USS Constitution on May 21, 1822:

"One of our vessels of war was lying in the harbor of Leghorn, and among her gallant officers were some warm admirers of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (Byron’s long narrative poem published 1812-1818 about a world weary young man who tries to find happiness by traveling in foreign lands). They sought Byron's acquaintance and invited him to visit the frigate. When he went on board he received a salute, and few compliments ever gratified him so much."

On May 29, 1822 soon after his visit to the USS Constitution and the accompanying corvette USS Ontario, Byron wrote the following to John Murray, his English publisher:

"Since I came here I have been invited by the Americans on board of their Squadron where I was received with all the kindness {which} I could wish, and with more ceremony than I am fond of. – I found them finer ships than your own of the same class – well manned & officered. – A number of American gentlemen also were on board at the time {& some ladies.} – As I was taking leave – an American lady asked for a rose which I wore – for the purpose she said of sending to America something which I had about me as a memorial. – I need not add that I felt the Compliment properly. – Captain Chauncey showed me an American and very pretty edition of my poems, and offered me a passage to the United States – if I would go there. – – Commodore Jones was also not less kind and attentive. – I have since received the enclosed letter desiring me to sit for my picture for some Americans."

Byron's reference to the letter about sitting for his portrait refers to one done by the American artist William Edward West (1788-1857) of Kentucky.
West came to Florence, Italy in 1819 to improve his painting skills at one of the art academies there. The two men met at Leghorn during the visit of the USS Constitution. The portrait of Byron by West was significantly the last life portrait of the poet, who would die in Greece from an infection on April 19, 1824.

In addition to the Byron portrait, West executed a maritime painting documenting Lord Byron's visit to the Constitution. This was painted sometime between 1822 and 1824. The painting shows several longboats filled with passengers headed towards the ship. Byron is in the boat furthest to the right. He is standing, wearing a black top hat and waving a red banner. The latter accoutrement helps us pick him out from the crowd.

Byron as was typical of other heroic adventurers during the era of Romanticism became interested in revolutionary causes such as the Greek War of Independence (1821-1832). Next time we will look at that aspect of his life including an Italian revolutionary link between Byron and Garibaldi.


Illustrations:

1.Lord Byron Visits the USS Constitution by Willam Edward West (1822-24)
2.Portrait of Lord Byron by William Edward West (1822)
3.Commodore Jacob Jones of the USS Constitution (Artist unknown)
4.Photograph of Self Portrait of William Edward West (1819)

 

[PolarBear]

Part 17B2 Byronism, Freedom and the Greek War of Independence of the 1820s

"I had had a taste of freedom"
Winslow Homer 1878

The last time we saw Lord Byron, he was aboard the USS Constitution off the coast of Leghorn, Italy in May of 1822. In this segment we shall consider Byron's involvement in the Greek War of Independence. Byron's participation in the cause of Greek freedom should be viewed as a transnational event involving the United States as well as Europe. It also provided a precedent for the later actions of Giuseppe Garibaldi and ultimately the Italian Risorgimento. In fact there are similarities between Garibaldi and Lord Byron. Both men were products of the age of Romanticism and hero worship. As I have noted previously, the swashbuckling heroic male adventurer was a mainstay of the movement.

The phenomenon of "Byronism" was an international phenomenon. We saw this previously in the enthusiastic reception he received from the officers aboard the USS Constitution. Garibaldi's mentor and leading figure of the Risorgimento, Giuseppe Mazzini, the Italian revolutionary was deeply influenced by Byronism.
The 1822 visit of Byron aboard the USS Constitution may be seen as a symbolic event about freedom and America. When the ship was launched in 1797, President George Washington, named it after America's most important document since the Declaration of Independence. Its Bill of Rights put forth the new nation's ten basic freedoms. Indeed the ship was an embodiment of the protection of those freedoms on the high seas, showing the flag and protecting the nation's trade and commerce around the world, initially in the Quasi War with France (1798-1800) and during the First Barbary War (1801-1805).
In the year prior to his visit aboard the ship, Byron had described that aspect of the United States on October 12, 1821 when he wrote : "America is a Model of
force and freedom & moderation..."

The Greek War of Independence (1821-1832) should be viewed in the context of transnational history. It is related to the three Atlantic Revolutions and national struggles for freedom during the 18th Century: the American Revolution of 1776, the French Revolution of 1789, and the Haitian Revolution of 1791-1804. The latter was the largest successful slave rebellion in the Western Hemisphere.

The Greek War or Revolution was about resistance to the oppression of the Turks of the Ottoman Empire who had controlled Greece since 1453. Between 1809 and 1811 Byron went on The Grand Tour. However, due to the contemporary Napoleonic Wars, Byron had to detour away from the usual itinerary and headed for the Mediterranean and Aegean Sea, ultimately touring Greece, where he got his first hand view of the structures of the Ancient Greeks and their civilization's role in the development of Democracy and its concomitant freedoms. While there, Byron became aware of the plight of the Greeks under Ottoman rule and the loss of their heritage of Greek culture. Among the outcomes of Byron's 1809 visit to Greece was the publication of his poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage issued in four Cantos between 1812 and 1818. Parts of the poem are set in the Greece he had recently visited. It's publication made him well known throughout Europe and North America. This was among the poems that was familiar to the officers he had met aboard the USS Constitution in 1822.
The Greek War for Independence received wide coverage in the Western press and inspired individuals to travel to Greece to join the effort. Byron was among them. In his response to the war and the Greek need for fighters, he was characteristic of the Romantic movement's love of the dashing hero going off to battle in exotic lands. The combination of Greece and the Ottoman Turks fit the criteria perfectly. In that respect, he foreshadows Garibaldi who in his early years offered his services to several Latin American revolutions.

Byron's military volunteerism was foreshadowed by a poem he wrote in 1820, one year before the Greek War began.

When a Man Hath No Freedom(1820)
By George Gordon, Lord Byron

"When a man hath no freedom to fight for at home,
Let him combat for that of his neighbours;
Let him think of the glories of Greece and of Rome,
And get knocked on the head for his labours,
To do good to mankind is the chivalrous plan,
And is always as nobly requited;
Then battle for freedom wherever you can,
And if not shot or hanged you’ll get knighted."

Greek resistance to Turkish control began in earnest in 1821. Secret revolutionary societies had been organizing throughout Greece, providing a
basis for their rebellion. News of the uprising spread rapidly to the nations of Western Europe and North America. Interest in Greece and its important heritage had already become prevalent among artists, writers and intellectuals during the Romantic movement of Panhellenic Societies (lovers of all things Greek) in Europe and North America. Members were inspired by the Ancient Greek democratic ideals of freedom, liberty, and equality. It was in such a context that Byron would become involved in the Greek struggle.

On July 15, 1823 Byron set sail for Greece with stops along the way to gather funds and supplies for the Greeks. He landed at Missolonghi on January 4, 1824. In 1861Greek artist Theodoros Vryzakis reconstructed Byron's arrival in an oil painting entitled The Reception of Lord Byron at Missolonghi. Byron is standing in the center of the painting surrounded by Greek soldiers and dignitaries of the local Greek Orthodox Church who are grateful for his efforts on their behalf. Unfortunately, Byron's time in Greece would be cut short by his death on April 19 when he died in his sleep. Ten days earlier he got caught in a heavy rain while out on horseback riding and eventually succumbed to a fatal fever. His death made headlines around the world and enhanced his fame and reputation as an archetypal hero of the Romantic Era. The phenomenon of Byronism inspired more volunteers to come to the aid of the Greeks. Byronism may be seen as a predecessor to Garibaldi-Mania.
Missolonghi later came under multiple sieges by the Turks and became an icon of the sufferings of the Greek people at the hands of the Ottomans. The Third Siege of 1826 resulted in the massacre of the Greek population. Many of them died within the walls of the city after the failure of an escape plan on April 19, 1826. While others were captured and sold as slaves. The 19th Century French Romantic painter Eugene Delacroix produced two of the most famous paintings of the Greek War. The first was completed in 1824. Entitled The Massacre at Chios it records an event from April 1822 when Ottoman forces descended upon the island of Chios and massacred or enslaved the Greek residents of the island.

Delacroix' second painting represents the massacre that occurred at Missolonghi in 1826. Painted in the same year, Greece shows a woman dressed in blue and white (the colors of the Greek flag) kneeling upon the rubble of the destroyed city. Directly beneath her is a man's arm projecting out from under the rubble where his body has been entrapped. His arm is draped over the barrel of a cannon. To the right behind the woman is a triumphant Ottoman warrior holding a spear. His clothing and African appearance suggests that he was one of the Egyptian soldiers brought to Greece to supplement the forces of the Ottoman army. Delacroix meant the woman to be an allegory of Greece. "She" will ultimately survive and be victorious over the Ottoman Empire. When these two paintings were displayed in Paris, they inspired more French Philhellenes to travel to Greece to help.

Delacroix had not traveled to Greece to do his paintings. They were painted in his Parisian studio. However, he did gather newspaper accounts and eyewitness reports to give his paintings a feeling of authenticity.The painter (Delacroix) like the poet (Byron) or the revolutionary/warrior (Garibaldi) was considered to be a Romantic hero.

Byron and Garibaldi actually had other connections besides their military exploits. Both men liked adopting aspects of the exotic local clothing where they had carried out there heroic exploits. Byron, during his Grand Tour of the Mediterranean and Greece between 1809 and 1811 fell in love with the local costumes of Albania and brought one back with him. He even had his portrait done wearing it by the English painter Thomas Phillips in 1813. The costume is

still extant and has been occasionally displayed for the public in England. Some of Garibaldi's earliest exploits had taken place in Argentina during the 1830s where he admired the clothing of the gauchos. That influence may be seen in the illustration below.

Finally Byron as a revolutionary was a member of the secret society of the Italian Carbonari or charcoal burners which was inspired by the symbols and rituals of Freemasonry. It was one of a number of secret organizations that developed in the years leading up to the European Revolutions of 1848. These included Young Italy, Young Germany, Young Hungary, Young Poland, Etc. Giuseppe Mazzini, the Italian revolutionary ideologue of the Risorgimento and mentor to Garibaldi was also a Carbonari member.

Ilustrations:
1.Theodoros Vryzakis (1861) The Reception of Lord Byron at Missolonghi. 1825 Edition of Byron’s Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage
2.Eugene Delacroix (1824) The Massacre at Chios (1824) and Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi (1826
3.Lord Byron in Albanian Costume. Garibaldi and Gaucho apparel
4.Carbonari: Symbols. Secret Meeting. Arrest of Carbonari. Giuseppe Mazzini Italian Revolutionary and Carbonari member

 

[PolarBear]

Part 17B3 American Panhellenism

Samuel Gridley Howe:

In my previous post I mentioned that the Greek War of Independence of the 1820s was a transnational invent that included a number of Americans who volunteered to serve as fighters for the Greeks. Among those was Samuel Gridley Howe (1801-1876). Trained as a physician at Harvard Medical School, he graduated in 1824. At that time he decided to offer his services as a surgeon and soldier to the Greek cause for freedom. Like so many others his idol was Lord Byron. In 1828 when he published a book on his Greek experiences, he included on the title page a quotation from Byron’s Child Harold’s Pilgrimage. His service to the Greeks both medical and military earned him the nickname “Lafayette of the Greek Revolution”. Returning to America in 1827 he raised substantial funds for the Greeks who were in dire need of food and clothing.

Prior to the outbreak of the Civil War Dr. Howe was active in anti-slavery activities, including the attempt in opposition to the Fugitive Slave Law of 1854 to rescue Anthony Burns, the escaped slave who had sought asylum in Boston.During the Civil War, Howe served as a member of the United States Sanitary Commission, a group of Northern Civilians, whose function was to supplement care for soldiers that could not be provided by the Federal government. They gathered medical supplies, food, nurses, ambulance drivers and cooks. After the war he was a member of the Freedmen’s Bureau (like Winslow Homer’s brother Arthur) providing help to the newly freed slaves.

One other note of interest about Howe. His was wife was Julia Ward Howe, the composer of the Battle Hymn of the Republic.

Greek Revival Art & Architecture:

From 1820 to 1855, A popular type of American Architecture and Sculpture was the Greek Revival Style. A key component of Greek Revival architecture was the Greek Temple Style usually featuring supporting columns done in one of the three Greek styles: Doric, Ionic or Corinthian. The temple style was used for banks, libraries, government buildings, and homes. An example of the style applied to domestic architecture is shown below.
Greek sculpture was familiar to Americans who had traveled abroad to Greece or Italy. In fact many of the original Greek sculptures survived only as Roman copies. The American men and women sculptors who went to work in Rome or Florence would have seen these in person. For artists back in the 19th C United States there were plaster casts of the originals to examine and imitate. Among the earliest American sculptors to go to Italy was Horatio Greenough (1805- 1852) who was born in Boston. By 1828 he had a studio in Florence. Among his most famous early works was the 1832 statue of George Washington, a commission from the U.S. government, originally meant to be displayed in the center of the rotunda of the Capitol. Greenough wanted to give the Father of His Country “the nobility, virtue, and of the grandeur of the greatest ancients.” The figure was modeled on the Ancient Greek sculptor Phidias’s colossal sculpture of Zeus that was housed in the god’s Doric Temple in Olympia. Thus Washington is made to look like a Greek god bare chested, sitting on a Greek throne, wearing Greek sandals, and holding a Greek sword. Unfortunately the American public did not want to see their beloved general and first president in this way. They preferred to see him in his usual colonial attire or military uniform. Thus it is not in the Capitol but part of the Smithsonian’s collection of American art.

Illustrations:

1.Samuel Gridley Howe in Greek Uniform by John Elliott
2.An Historical Sketch of the Greek Revolution (1828) by S. G. Howe 3.Julia Ward Howe 1861by John Elliott
4.Towne & Davis The Russell House 1828 Middletown, CT.
5.George Washington 1832-1840 by Horatio Greenough

Forthcoming post: The Greek Slave 1843, sculpture by American artist Hiram Powers working in Florence during the Risorgimento

 

[PolarBear]

Part 17B3 Addendum The Howes & John Brown

In my previous post I looked at Samuel Gridley Howe as an example of a supporter of American Panhellenism who served as a volunteer in the Greek War of Independence during the 1820s. His actions followed in the footsteps of Lord Byron and foreshadowed the non-italian individuals who volunteered to aid Garibaldi and his goal of unifying Italy at mid-century. These were all examples of the Romantic movement’s role in revolutionary activity in the 19th Century that reached a critical mass in the European Revolutions of 1848.

Today reading more about Howe and his wife Julia, I discovered that both of them had connections to John Brown. As New England abolitionists and reformers this is not surprising, since Massachusetts Transcendentalists like Emerson and Thoreau were also admirers of Brown and after his execution in 1859 valorized his efforts on behalf of the anti-slavery movement.

In the late 1850s Samuel Howe became part of a group of Northern abolitionists who came together to offer economic support for Brown. They became known as the Secret Six. Their names and backgrounds are included in Illustration 3 below. A key aspect of their purpose was to supply Brown with weapons for his proposed raid on the arsenal at Harper’s Ferry. To that end Howe and his compatriots ordered 198 Sharps Rifles from the manufacturer in Hartford, Connecticut. The Sharps rifles were among those used by Union forces during the Civil War. Their reputation for accuracy made them the rifle of choice for Berdan’s Sharpshooters. Brown wanted some for his followers and others would be distributed to slaves who wanted to join his insurrection. After Brown’s capture, Howe and several other members of the Secret Six fled to Canada to escape the authorities.

Julia Howe’s connection wth John Brown was related to her composing The Battle Hymn of the Republic. As mentioned in my previous post, her husband was a member of Lincoln’s Sanitary Commission. In November 1861, Julia was touring Union Camps located just outside Washington, DC with Samuel for the purpose of inspecting the medical needs of the soldiers. While there they heard the soldiers singing a number of war songs that had become popular at that time. One of those songs was John Brown’s Body, whose melody would inspire the new lyrics for her Battle Hymn. A comparison of the lyrics for both songs is illustrated below.
The links of both of the Howes to John Brown should be considered in the wider context of this revolutionary’s growing fame during this time culminating in the Raid on Harper’s Ferry and subsequently Brown’s capture and execution.We have seen this phenomenon in Winslow Homer’s engraving for the December 15, 1860 issue of Harper’s Weekly entitled Expulsion of Negroes and Abolitionists from Tremont Temple, Boston, Massachusetts, on December 3, 1860. The meeting was meant to be a memorial to Brown who had been executed one year before. Frederick Douglass in his address to the group had compared Brown’s work to the heroic achievements of Giuseppe Garibaldi. Brown's raid was meant to set off a general slave rebellion similar to the one that had occurred in Haiti in the 1790s.

American historian, Andre M. Fleche has written a fascinating book about the American Civil War entitled The Revolution of 1861: The American Civil War in the Age of Nationalist Conflict (2012) that views the war as part of the series of national revolutions that occurred in Europe in 1848. It was after their unsuccessful outcomes, that a number of immigrants came to America from Germany, Italy, Hungary, Poland, France, Ireland, and Austria. They brought with them their revolutionary fervor and beliefs that they applied to the situation in America during the 1850s and the subsequent outbreak of war between the North and South in 1861. Lincoln’s eventual invitation to Garibaldi to come to aid the North in its military efforts should, therefore, not come as a surprise. Indeed by that time Garibaldi blouses and red jackets were already the rage among American women.

Illustrations:

1.Julia Ward Howe, Samuel Gridley Howe, John Brown
2.The Secret Six
3.Berdan Sharp’s Rifle
4.John Brown’s Body and Battle Hymn of the Republic
5.Expulsion of Negroes and Abolitionists from Tremont Temple, Boston, Massachusetts, on December 3, 1860 by Winslow Homer

 

[REVWARBUFF]

Randy,

I am just catching up on these last 3 posts and have to say that what you've discovered in your research is amazing! All those historical connections and the other historical info is fascinating to say the least.

Thanks for continuing this very interesting thread of yours!

Mark

 

[jazzeum]

Higginson was later a Colonel in the 1st South Carolina Volunteers, an African American regiment.

Below is a figure of the 1st South Carolina Volunteers, made by AeroArt.



Thank you for this thread Randy, especially the article on the Secret Six.